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Body image problems need to be taken seriously.
And in 2024, now more than ever.
Body image problems are one of the strongest risk factors for the development of an eating disorder, not to mention that they also lead to other unhealthy weight control behaviours.
Read on as we share a number of shocking statistics and facts about body image.
What is Body Image?
Body image refers to how we think about, feel and act towards our body. It is a multifaceted construct, meaning that it consists of many different perceptual, attitudinal, and behavioural components1 Cash TF. Cognitive-behavioral perspectives on body image. Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance: Elsevier 2012:334-342. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_1’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_1’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Negative body image can cause so many negative outcomes, like….2 Kearney‐Cooke, A., & Tieger, D. (2015). Body image disturbance and the development of eating disorders. In L. Smolak & M. D. Levine (Eds.), The Wiley Handbook of Eating Disorders (pp. 283-296). West Sussex, UK: Wiley jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_2’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_2’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });:
Depressive and anxiety symptomology
Increased risk of suicidal thoughts
Low self-esteem
Interpersonal problems
Alcohol and drug use and abuse
Reduced physical activity
Loss of sex drive
Stress
Social isolation
Decreased motivation to seek help
Perfectionistic tendencies
Repetitive negative thoughts
For more information on body image issues and how to deal with them read this guide.
Key Terms
There are so many different elements of body image.
We need to clarify what each of these components means before jumping straight into the statistics related to these components.
Body dissatisfaction: a general unhappiness with your body or its parts.
Overvaluation of weight/shape: basing who you are as a person almost entirely on what you look like or what the number on the scales tells you..
Body preoccupation: obsessively thinking or ruminating about what your body weighs or what it looks like.
Body checking: repeatedly check your weight and shape, through behaviors like self-weighing, staring in the mirror, comparing yourself with others, or pinching your body parts to assess for fat and muscle.
Body image avoidance: avoiding situations that can elicit concerns about your body, like a refusal to be weighed, wearing baggy clothes as a “disguise”, or the covering up of mirrors.
Feeling fat: a somatic sensation that you are carrying more fat that what you actually hold in reality, irrespective of actual body mass.
Fear of weight gain: irrational, illogical, and harmful fears that you’re gaining weight.
Thin-ideal internalization: buying into the belief that being thin will make you happy, popular, or successful.
Body dysmorphia: a body image disorder characterized by the obsessive idea that some aspect of one’s own body part is profoundly flawed and hence warrants behaviours designed to hide or fixed these perceived flaws.
Muscle dysmorphia: a body image disorder that centrally comprises a core belief and fear around being of insufficient muscularity, and a simultaneous drive for muscularity.
Now that you understand some common terminology, let’s turn to some key statistics on body image in men and women.
Body Image Statistics For Adults
More than 50% of adults from the US, UK, Australia, France and Germany reported experiencing weight stigma3Pearl, R. L., Puhl, R. M., Lessard, L. M., Himmelstein, M. S., & Foster, G. D. (2021). Prevalence and correlates of weight bias internalization in weight management: A multinational study. SSM-population Health, 13, 100755 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_3’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_3’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
11% of women, 25% of men, and 18% of gender diverse Canadian adolescents reported clinical risk of muscle dysmorphia 4Ganson, K. T., Hallward, L., Cunningham, M. L., Rodgers, R. F., DClinPsych, S. B. M., & Nagata, J. M. (2023). Muscle dysmorphia symptomatology among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults. Body Image, 44, 178-186 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_4’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_4’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
Nearly 1 in 3 health club users reported significant symptoms of body dysmorphia, of which 70% of these had an eating disorder5 Pearl, R. L., Puhl, R. M., Lessard, L. M., Himmelstein, M. S., & Foster, G. D. (2021). Prevalence and correlates of weight bias internalization in weight management: A multinational study. SSM-population Health, 13, 100755. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_5’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_5’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
1.6% of young adults report using androgenic-anabolic steroids as a means to modify their appearance 6Ganson, K. T., Hallward, L., Cunningham, M. L., Murray, S. B., & Nagata, J. M. (2023). Anabolic-androgenic steroid use: Patterns of use among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults. Performance Enhancement & Health, 11(1), 100241 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_6’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_6’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
Adults who used anabolic steroids for body image purposes are 3-4 times more likely to experience depression and anxiety than those who don’t use steroids7 Gestsdottir, S., Kristjansdottir, H., Sigurdsson, H., & Sigfusdottir, I. D. (2021). Prevalence, mental health and substance use of anabolic steroid users: a population-based study on young individuals. Scandinavian journal of public health, 49(5), 555-562 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_7’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_7’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Body Image Statistics for Men
Children and Teenagers
Research conducted in the U.S showed that around 25% of male children/adolescents were concerned about their muscularity and leanness, by expressing a greater desire for toned and defined muscles8 Calzo JP, Masyn KE, Corliss HL, Scherer EA, Field AE, Austin SB. Patterns of body image concerns and disordered weight- and shape-related behaviors in heterosexual and sexual minority adolescent males. Dev Psychol. 2015;51(9):1216–25 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_8’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_8’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
36% of students from United Arab Emirates report being dissatisfied with their body9 Alharballeh, S., & Dodeen, H. (2021). Prevalence of body image dissatisfaction among youth in the United Arab Emirates: gender, age, and body mass index differences. Current Psychology, 1-10 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_9’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_9’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
From a sample of 3618 Australian adolescents, 2.2% of boys an 1.2% of girls reported the presence of muscle dysmorphia10 Mitchison, D., Mond, J., Griffiths, S., Hay, P., Nagata, J. M., Bussey, K., … & Murray, S. B. (2021). Prevalence of muscle dysmorphia in adolescents: findings from the EveryBODY study. Psychological Medicine, 1-8. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_10’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_10’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
From a sample of Australian adolescents, 6.8% of boys and 19.6% of girls reported clinically significant body dissatisfaction11 McLean, S. A., Rodgers, R. F., Slater, A., Jarman, H. K., Gordon, C. S., & Paxton, S. J. (2021). Clinically significant body dissatisfaction: Prevalence and association with depressive symptoms in adolescent boys and girls. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 1-12. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_11’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_11’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Research on Australian male children and adolescents reported that around 17% were dissatisfied with their body and that around 5% reported an overvaluation of weight/shape12 Mond J, Hall A, Bentley C, Harrison C, Gratwick-Sarll K, Lewis V. Eating-disordered behavior in adolescent boys: eating disorder examination questionnaire norms. Int J Ea t Disord. 2014;47(4):335–41 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_12’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_12’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Body dysmorphic disorder symptoms are becoming increasingly common in male teenagers, with nearly 3% of the Australian population reporting body dysmorphic symptoms13 Schneider, S. C., Mond, J., Turner, C. M., & Hudson, J. L. (2017). Subthreshold body dysmorphic disorder in adolescents: Prevalence and impact. Psychiatry research, 251, 125-130 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_13’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_13’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
In 15,624 American high school students, 30% of males reported a desire to gain weight for muscularity purposes14 Nagata, J. M., Bibbins-Domingo, K., Garber, A. K., Griffiths, S., Vittinghoff, E., & Murray, S. B. (2019). Boys, bulk, and body ideals: Sex differences in weight-gain attempts among adolescents in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(4), 450-453 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_14’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_14’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Around 17% of adolescent boys perceived themselves to be underweight, despite being of normal weigh15 Nagata, J. M., Bibbins-Domingo, K., Garber, A. K., Griffiths, S., Vittinghoff, E., & Murray, S. B. (2019). Boys, bulk, and body ideals: Sex differences in weight-gain attempts among adolescents in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(4), 450-453 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_15’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_15’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Multiracial and African American adolescent boys were nearly two times more likely to attempt weight gain than Caucasian adolescent boys16 Nagata, J. M., Bibbins-Domingo, K., Garber, A. K., Griffiths, S., Vittinghoff, E., & Murray, S. B. (2019). Boys, bulk, and body ideals: Sex differences in weight-gain attempts among adolescents in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(4), 450-453 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_16’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_16’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Of 4,701 adolescent boys, 23% reported engaging in unhealthy muscle building behaviour at 1 year follow-up, with this figure increasing to 30% at 7 year follow-up17 Nagata, J. M., Domingue, B. W., Darmstadt, G. L., Weber, A. M., Meausoone, V., Cislaghi, B., & Shakya, H. B. (2020). Gender norms and weight control behaviors in US adolescents: A prospective cohort study (1994–2002). Journal of Adolescent Health, 66(1), S34-S41 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_17’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_17’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Among Australian adolescent boys, 12% met criteria for an eating disorder characterized by marked body image disturbances18 Mitchison D, Mond J, Bussey K,etal.DSM-5 full syndrome, other specified,and unspecified eating disorders in Australian adolescents: prevalence andclinical significance. Psychol Med 2019; 50:981 – 990 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_18’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_18’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
Around 20% of German child/adolescent boys felt fat, 15% were terrified of gaining weight, and 25% reported regularly feeling upset about weight or shape19 Schuck, K., Munsch, S., & Schneider, S. (2018). Body image perceptions and symptoms of disturbed eating behavior among children and adolescents in Germany. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_19’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_19’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
20% of adolescents with diabetes report significant dissatisfaction with their body shape 20 Daniel, L., Haile, D., & Egata, G. (2023). Disordered Eating Behaviours and Body Shape Dissatisfaction among Diabetic Adolescents: a Cross sectional study. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_20’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_20’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
More than 90% of young people in Australia have some concern about their body image21More than 90% of young people in Australia have some concern about their body image (2023) Butterfly Foundation. Available at: https://butterfly.org.au/news/more-than-90-of-young-people-in-australia-have-some-concern-about-their-body-image/ (Accessed: 18 May 2024). jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_21’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_21’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
One in two (50%) young Australians said that how they view their body has prevented them at some point from raising their hand in class22More than 90% of young people in Australia have some concern about their body image (2023) Butterfly Foundation. Available at: https://butterfly.org.au/news/more-than-90-of-young-people-in-australia-have-some-concern-about-their-body-image/ (Accessed: 18 May 2024). jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_22’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_22’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
Over a third (37%) of young Australians admitted that their body image stopped them from participating in physical activity or sport quite a bit or all of the time23More than 90% of young people in Australia have some concern about their body image (2023) Butterfly Foundation. Available at: https://butterfly.org.au/news/more-than-90-of-young-people-in-australia-have-some-concern-about-their-body-image/ (Accessed: 18 May 2024). jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_23’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_23’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
More than a third (36%) of young Australians confirmed their body image stopped them from giving an opinion or standing up for themselves24More than 90% of young people in Australia have some concern about their body image (2023) Butterfly Foundation. Available at: https://butterfly.org.au/news/more-than-90-of-young-people-in-australia-have-some-concern-about-their-body-image/ (Accessed: 18 May 2024). jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_24’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_24’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
For student-athletes in the NCAA, 68% of men and 45% of women felt they have a good body, 53% of men and 35% of women were happy with their current weight, and 59% of men and 31% of women liked what they look like in pictures.25Current Findings on Student-Athlete Weight, Body Image and Nutrition NCAA Student-Athlete Health and Wellness Study (February 2024) (2024) NCAA Research. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_25’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_25’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
Males: Adult Men
Nearly 15% of Australian men report an overvaluation of weight and shape26 Mitchison, D., Mond, J., Slewa‐Younan, S., & Hay, P. (2013). Sex differences in health‐related quality of life impairment associated with eating disorder features: A general population study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 46, 375-380 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_26’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_26’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Three quarters of young boys/men report using appearance- and performance-enhancing substances to modify their body image 27Ganson, K. T., Hallward, L., Cunningham, M. L., Murray, S. B., & Nagata, J. M. (2022). Use of Legal Appearance-and Performance-Enhancing Drugs and Substances: Findings from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors. Substance Use & Misuse, 1-9 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_27’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_27’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
In U.S adult men, 9% reported frequent body checking and 5% reported body image avoidance28 Striegel-Moore R, Rosselli F, Perrin N, DeBar L, Wilson GT, May A, et al. Gender difference in the prevalence of eating disorder symptoms. Int J Eat Disord. 2009;42:471–4. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_28’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_28’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
In a sample of French university students, more than 85% of the men samples were dissatisfied with their muscularity29 Valls M, Bonvin P, Chabrol H. Association between muscularity dissatisfaction and body dissatisfaction among normal-weight French men. J Mens Health. 2013;10(4):139–45. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_29’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_29’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
Nearly 2% of German male population met diagnostic criteria for body dysmorphic disorder, and more than 2.5% are expected to exhibit clinically significant levels of muscle dysphoria30 Rief W, Buhlmann U, Wilhelm S, Borkenhagen A, Brahler E. The prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder: a population-based survey. Psychol Med. 2006;36(6):877–85. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_30’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_30’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
Nearly 22% of young men report engaging in muscle-enhancing behaviors, including eating more or differently to build muscle(17%), supplement use (7%), and androgenic–anabolic steroid use (3%)31 Nagata, J. M., Ganson, K. T., & Murray, S. B. (2020). Eating disorders in adolescent boys and young men: an update. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 32(4), 476-481 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_31’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_31’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
15% of young men with BMI at least 25 report engaging in disordered eating behaviors, including fasting, skipping meals, vomiting, laxatives, diuretics, or binge-eating32 Nagata JM, Garber AK, Tabler J,et al. Prevalence and correlates of disordered eating behaviors among young adults with overweight or obesity. J Gen Intern Med 2018; 33:1337 – 1343 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_32’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_32’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
8% of young men with BMI less than 25 report engaging in these disordered eating behaviors33 Nagata JM, Garber AK, Tabler J,et al. Prevalence and correlates of disordered eating behaviors among young adults with overweight or obesity. J Gen Intern Med 2018; 33:1337 – 1343 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_33’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_33’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
In more than 50,000 adults, 41% of men thought they were too heavy and were self-conscious about their weight, 16% reported being too uncomfortable in a swimsuit, and 11% thought that they were unattractive34 Frederick, D. A., Peplau, L. A., & Lever, J. (2006). The swimsuit issue: Correlates of body image in a sample of 52,677 heterosexual adults. Body Image, 3(4), 413-419 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_34’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_34’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Body Image Statistics for Women
Children and Teenagers
Research has shown that around 50% of young 13 year old American girls reported being unhappy with their body. This number grew to nearly 80% by the time girls reached 17 years of age35 Kearney‐Cooke, A., & Tieger, D. (2015). Body image disturbance and the development of eating disorders. In L. Smolak & M. D. Levine (Eds.), The Wiley Handbook of Eating Disorders (pp. 283-296). West Sussex, UK: Wiley jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_35’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_35’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Nearly 80% of young teenage girls report fears of becoming fat36 Kearney‐Cooke, A., & Tieger, D. (2015). Body image disturbance and the development of eating disorders. In L. Smolak & M. D. Levine (Eds.), The Wiley Handbook of Eating Disorders (pp. 283-296). West Sussex, UK: Wiley jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_36’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_36’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Among adolescents who believed they “weren’t thin enough” or “might get too fat”, 53% exhibited clinically symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder 37McGuire, F. H., Goldbach, J. T., Senese, J. G., Cabrera, J. R., Schrager, S. M., & Duncan, A. E. (2023). Longitudinal association of homonegative school climate with body dysmorphic disorder among cisgender sexual minority adolescents: Testing mediation through proximal minority stressors. Body Image, 45, 86-93. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_37’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_37’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
In German Adolescent girls, nearly one-third perceived a a BMI of less than 18 to be the ideal female body size38 Schuck, K., Munsch, S., & Schneider, S. (2018). Body image perceptions and symptoms of disturbed eating behavior among children and adolescents in Germany. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_38’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_38’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
A total of 36% of German child/adolescent girls felt fat, 22% were terrified of gaining weight, and 36% reported regularly feeling upset about their weight or shap39 Schuck, K., Munsch, S., & Schneider, S. (2018). Body image perceptions and symptoms of disturbed eating behavior among children and adolescents in Germany. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_39’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_39’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
In 657 Spanish girls, nearly 50% expressed a desire for a thinner body, despite being of a normal body weight40 del Mar Bibiloni, M., Pich, J., Pons, A., & Tur, J. A. (2013). Body image and eating patterns among adolescents. BMC public health, 13(1), 1-10 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_40’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_40’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
In the same sample of Spanish girls, nearly 90% of girls who were overweight expressed a desire for a thinner body, and only 11% wanted their body to stay the same41 del Mar Bibiloni, M., Pich, J., Pons, A., & Tur, J. A. (2013). Body image and eating patterns among adolescents. BMC public health, 13(1), 1-10 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_41’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_41’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Body image was listed in the top 4 concerns for young women.
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Females: Adult Women
Nearly 1 in 2 adult women report feeling more concerned with the way they look during the pandemic lockdown42 Robertson, M., Duffy, F., Newman, E., Bravo, C. P., Ates, H. H., & Sharpe, H. (2021). Exploring changes in body image, eating and exercise during the COVID-19 lockdown: A UK survey. Appetite, 159, 105062 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_42’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_42’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
In one Switzerland study of 1000 adult women (aged 30-74 years), despite 73% of women falling within the normal weight range, more than 70% of these women expressed a desire to be thinner.
This trend also held true for older women (> 65 years); 65% were of normal weight, yet 62% of these women wished to be thinner43 Allaz, A. F., Bernstein, M., Rouget, P., Archinard, M., & Morabia, A. (1998). Body weight preoccupation in middle‐age and ageing women: A general population survey. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23(3), 287-294. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_43’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_43’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
Around 60% of elderly women (aged 60-70 years) in Austria are dissatisfied with their body and more than half reported restricting their eating as a means to prevent weight gain44 Mangweth‐Matzek, B., Rupp, C. I., Hausmann, A., Assmayr, K., Mariacher, E., Kemmler, G., … & Biebl, W. (2006). Never too old for eating disorders or body dissatisfaction: A community study of elderly women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39(7), 583-586. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_44’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_44’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
In U.S adult women, 23% reported frequent body checking and 11% reported body image avoidance45 Striegel-Moore R, Rosselli F, Perrin N, DeBar L, Wilson GT, May A, et al. Gender difference in the prevalence of eating disorder symptoms. Int J Eat Disord. 2009;42:471–4. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_45’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_45’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
One large cohort study reported no differences in rates of body dissatisfaction between Caucasian and African-American adult women, with around 50% of the women from each group reporting body dissatisfaction46 Jackson, K. L., Janssen, I., Appelhans, B. M., Kazlauskaite, R., Karavolos, K., Dugan, S. A., … Kravitz, H. M. (2014). Body image satisfaction and depression in midlife women: The study of women’s health across the Nation (SWAN). Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 17(3), 177–187 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_46’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_46’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Nearly 23% of Australian women report an overvaluation of weight and shape47 Mitchison, D., Mond, J., Slewa‐Younan, S., & Hay, P. (2013). Sex differences in health‐related quality of life impairment associated with eating disorder features: A general population study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 46, 375-380 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_47’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_47’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Nearly 70% of adult women report withdrawing from activities due to their body image48 Etcoff et al (2006). Beyond Stereotypes: Rebuilding the foundation of beauty beliefs. Findings of the 2005 global study jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_48’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_48’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
In more than 50,000 adults, 60% of women thought they were too heavy and were self-conscious about their weight, 30% reported being too uncomfortable in a swimsuit, and 20% thought that they were unattractive49 Frederick, D. A., Peplau, L. A., & Lever, J. (2006). The swimsuit issue: Correlates of body image in a sample of 52,677 heterosexual adults. Body Image, 3(4), 413-419 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_49’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_49’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
In a sample of 160 African American adult women, 47% were dissatisfied with their body image, 11% felt that they were unattractive, and 75% were somewhat unsatisfied with their weight50 Jackson, K. L., Janssen, I., Appelhans, B. M., Kazlauskaite, R., Karavolos, K., Dugan, S. A., … & Kravitz, H. M. (2014). Body image satisfaction and depression in midlife women: the Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation (SWAN). Archives of women’s mental health, 17(3), 177-187 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_50’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_50’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
Media Influence on Body Image
The media can have a negative influence on body image.
In fact, a good deal of experimental research has shown that the media can actually cause people to feel unhappy with their body.
How then does the media cause body dissatisfaction?
The media is full of promoting unrealistic ideals about what men and women’s body type should look like in order to be considered attractive.
Unfortunately, due to basic biology these ideals are largely unattainable. So, people who buy into the mantra that thin/muscular is synonymous with beauty, popularity, and success are often left feeling sad, ashamed, and unhappy with their body51 Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: a meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological bulletin, 134(3), 460 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_51’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_51’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
The consequence of this is that these people will then go to great lengths to try and achieve this seemingly unrealistic ideal by engaging in harmful weight control behaviors, like extreme dieting, or taking steroids, laxatives, or diuretics52 Stice, E. (2002). Risk and maintenance factors for eating pathology: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 825-848 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_52’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_52’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
All of these behaviours have the potential to cause an eating disorder.
Let’s turn our attention to some specific studies that have looked at the role of the media on body dissatisfaction, and discuss some of their key findings and statistics.
There is a great deal of evidence showing that mainstream media outlets continuously promote the notion that thinness is equated with numerous positive outcomes. Some interesting findings include:
A study in 2004 that identified the top 25 children videos found that more than two-thirds of these videos linked thinness and physical attractiveness with positive personality traits (e.g., caring, kindness) while 75% of the videos linked obesity with unfavourable traits53 Herbozo, S., Tantleff-Dunn, S., Gokee-Larose, J., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Beauty and thinness messages in children’s media: A content analysis. Eating Disorders, 12(1), 21-34. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_53’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_53’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
These depictions were even more exaggerated in 2010, with 87% of female characters portrayed as underweight in over 180 popular children cartoon programs54 Northup, T., & Liebler, C. M. (2010). The good, the bad, and the beautiful: Beauty ideals on the Disney and Nickelodeon channels. Journal of Children and Media, 4(3), 265-282 jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_54’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_54’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
In another study of popular children cartoons, females were four times more likely than male characters to be depicted as underweight, and overweight characters were more likely to be portrayed as unintelligent and unhappy compared to underweight characters55 Klein, H., & Shiffman, K. S. (2005). Thin is “in” and stout is “out”: What animated cartoons tell viewers about body weight. Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 10(2), 107-116. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_55’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_55’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Let’s now look at some data showing what specific impact the media has on people’s body image concerns.
In one study of young girls aged between 13-17 years, nearly 50% reported a desire to be as skinny as the models they viewed in fashion magazines and reported that these magazines gave them a body to strive for.
Simply viewing a Barbie doll has been shown to reduce body esteem and increase a desire for thinness in girls aged 5-8 years56 Dittmar, H., Halliwell, E., & Ive, S. (2006). Does Barbie make girls want to be thin? The effect of experimental exposure to images of dolls on the body image of 5-to 8-year-old girls. Developmental psychology, 42(2), 283. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_56’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_56’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
A survey of 548 adolescent girls found that 69% acknowledged that images in magazines had influenced their conception of the ideal body weight, while 47% reported that they wanted to lose weight after seeing such images57 Field, A. E., Cheung, L., Wolf, A. M., Herzog, D. B., Gortmaker, S. L., & Colditz, G. A. (1999). Exposure to the mass media and weight concerns among girls. Pediatrics, 103(3), e36-e36. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_57’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_57’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
Girls who frequently read glamour magazines related to weight loss are 6 times more likely to engage in extreme unhealthy weight control behaviours (e.g., taking diet pills, using laxatives, vomiting) than girls who do not read such magazines58 Utter, J., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Wall, M., & Story, M. (2003). Reading magazine articles about dieting and associated weight control behaviors among adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 32(1), 78-82. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_58’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_58’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
After television became widespread in Fiji, 11% of adolescent girls reported vomiting for weight control, 74% reported feeling at, and the prevalence of disordered eating doubled from 13% to 29%59 Becker, A. E., Burwell, R. A., Herzog, D. B., Hamburg, P., & Gilman, S. E. (2002). Eating behaviours and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 180(6), 509-514. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_59’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_59’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });
One study found using social media for as little as 30 minutes a day can negatively change the way young women view their own body60 Fardouly, J., Diedrichs, P. C., Vartanian, L. R., & Halliwell, E. (2015). Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. Body image, 13, 38-45. jQuery(‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_1982_2_60’).tooltip({ tip: ‘#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_1982_2_60’, tipClass: ‘footnote_tooltip’, effect: ‘fade’, predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: ‘top right’, relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });.
Strategies for Safe Social Media Use
Unfollow! Unfollow or unlike pages that may be triggering or encouraging comparison making.
See how you go for a few days and observe whether you notice any changes in your perceptions, attitudes, and behaviours toward your body.
Seek out body positivity!
Make a conscious effort to follow or like body positivity pages. Being involved in a forum where all body shapes and sizes are respected will make you feel included and better about yourself.
Educate yourself.
Understand how social media works, how people interact it, and the various ways social media content is manipulated. Always remind yourself that social media posts are rarely a true reflection of reality. This will enable you to be more compassionate towards yourself.
Interested in more facts and statistics? Check out our 57+ unthinkable eating disorder statistics here.
References[+]
References
↑1 Cash TF. Cognitive-behavioral perspectives on body image. Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance: Elsevier 2012:334-342.
↑2 Kearney‐Cooke, A., & Tieger, D. (2015). Body image disturbance and the development of eating disorders. In L. Smolak & M. D. Levine (Eds.), The Wiley Handbook of Eating Disorders (pp. 283-296). West Sussex, UK: Wiley
↑3 Pearl, R. L., Puhl, R. M., Lessard, L. M., Himmelstein, M. S., & Foster, G. D. (2021). Prevalence and correlates of weight bias internalization in weight management: A multinational study. SSM-population Health, 13, 100755
↑4 Ganson, K. T., Hallward, L., Cunningham, M. L., Rodgers, R. F., DClinPsych, S. B. M., & Nagata, J. M. (2023). Muscle dysmorphia symptomatology among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults. Body Image, 44, 178-186
↑5 Pearl, R. L., Puhl, R. M., Lessard, L. M., Himmelstein, M. S., & Foster, G. D. (2021). Prevalence and correlates of weight bias internalization in weight management: A multinational study. SSM-population Health, 13, 100755.
↑6 Ganson, K. T., Hallward, L., Cunningham, M. L., Murray, S. B., & Nagata, J. M. (2023). Anabolic-androgenic steroid use: Patterns of use among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults. Performance Enhancement & Health, 11(1), 100241
↑7 Gestsdottir, S., Kristjansdottir, H., Sigurdsson, H., & Sigfusdottir, I. D. (2021). Prevalence, mental health and substance use of anabolic steroid users: a population-based study on young individuals. Scandinavian journal of public health, 49(5), 555-562
↑8 Calzo JP, Masyn KE, Corliss HL, Scherer EA, Field AE, Austin SB. Patterns of body image concerns and disordered weight- and shape-related behaviors in heterosexual and sexual minority adolescent males. Dev Psychol. 2015;51(9):1216–25
↑9 Alharballeh, S., & Dodeen, H. (2021). Prevalence of body image dissatisfaction among youth in the United Arab Emirates: gender, age, and body mass index differences. Current Psychology, 1-10
↑10 Mitchison, D., Mond, J., Griffiths, S., Hay, P., Nagata, J. M., Bussey, K., … & Murray, S. B. (2021). Prevalence of muscle dysmorphia in adolescents: findings from the EveryBODY study. Psychological Medicine, 1-8.
↑11 McLean, S. A., Rodgers, R. F., Slater, A., Jarman, H. K., Gordon, C. S., & Paxton, S. J. (2021). Clinically significant body dissatisfaction: Prevalence and association with depressive symptoms in adolescent boys and girls. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 1-12.
↑12 Mond J, Hall A, Bentley C, Harrison C, Gratwick-Sarll K, Lewis V. Eating-disordered behavior in adolescent boys: eating disorder examination questionnaire norms. Int J Ea t Disord. 2014;47(4):335–41
↑13 Schneider, S. C., Mond, J., Turner, C. M., & Hudson, J. L. (2017). Subthreshold body dysmorphic disorder in adolescents: Prevalence and impact. Psychiatry research, 251, 125-130
↑14, ↑15, ↑16 Nagata, J. M., Bibbins-Domingo, K., Garber, A. K., Griffiths, S., Vittinghoff, E., & Murray, S. B. (2019). Boys, bulk, and body ideals: Sex differences in weight-gain attempts among adolescents in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(4), 450-453
↑17 Nagata, J. M., Domingue, B. W., Darmstadt, G. L., Weber, A. M., Meausoone, V., Cislaghi, B., & Shakya, H. B. (2020). Gender norms and weight control behaviors in US adolescents: A prospective cohort study (1994–2002). Journal of Adolescent Health, 66(1), S34-S41
↑18 Mitchison D, Mond J, Bussey K,etal.DSM-5 full syndrome, other specified,and unspecified eating disorders in Australian adolescents: prevalence andclinical significance. Psychol Med 2019; 50:981 – 990
↑19, ↑38, ↑39 Schuck, K., Munsch, S., & Schneider, S. (2018). Body image perceptions and symptoms of disturbed eating behavior among children and adolescents in Germany. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health
↑20 Daniel, L., Haile, D., & Egata, G. (2023). Disordered Eating Behaviours and Body Shape Dissatisfaction among Diabetic Adolescents: a Cross sectional study.
↑21, ↑22, ↑23, ↑24 More than 90% of young people in Australia have some concern about their body image (2023) Butterfly Foundation. Available at: https://butterfly.org.au/news/more-than-90-of-young-people-in-australia-have-some-concern-about-their-body-image/ (Accessed: 18 May 2024).
↑25 Current Findings on Student-Athlete Weight, Body Image and Nutrition NCAA Student-Athlete Health and Wellness Study (February 2024) (2024) NCAA Research.
↑26, ↑47 Mitchison, D., Mond, J., Slewa‐Younan, S., & Hay, P. (2013). Sex differences in health‐related quality of life impairment associated with eating disorder features: A general population study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 46, 375-380
↑27 Ganson, K. T., Hallward, L., Cunningham, M. L., Murray, S. B., & Nagata, J. M. (2022). Use of Legal Appearance-and Performance-Enhancing Drugs and Substances: Findings from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors. Substance Use & Misuse, 1-9
↑28, ↑45 Striegel-Moore R, Rosselli F, Perrin N, DeBar L, Wilson GT, May A, et al. Gender difference in the prevalence of eating disorder symptoms. Int J Eat Disord. 2009;42:471–4.
↑29 Valls M, Bonvin P, Chabrol H. Association between muscularity dissatisfaction and body dissatisfaction among normal-weight French men. J Mens Health. 2013;10(4):139–45.
↑30 Rief W, Buhlmann U, Wilhelm S, Borkenhagen A, Brahler E. The prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder: a population-based survey. Psychol Med. 2006;36(6):877–85.
↑31 Nagata, J. M., Ganson, K. T., & Murray, S. B. (2020). Eating disorders in adolescent boys and young men: an update. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 32(4), 476-481
↑32, ↑33 Nagata JM, Garber AK, Tabler J,et al. Prevalence and correlates of disordered eating behaviors among young adults with overweight or obesity. J Gen Intern Med 2018; 33:1337 – 1343
↑34 Frederick, D. A., Peplau, L. A., & Lever, J. (2006). The swimsuit issue: Correlates of body image in a sample of 52,677 heterosexual adults. Body Image, 3(4), 413-419
↑35, ↑36 Kearney‐Cooke, A., & Tieger, D. (2015). Body image disturbance and the development of eating disorders. In L. Smolak & M. D. Levine (Eds.), The Wiley Handbook of Eating Disorders (pp. 283-296). West Sussex, UK: Wiley
↑37 McGuire, F. H., Goldbach, J. T., Senese, J. G., Cabrera, J. R., Schrager, S. M., & Duncan, A. E. (2023). Longitudinal association of homonegative school climate with body dysmorphic disorder among cisgender sexual minority adolescents: Testing mediation through proximal minority stressors. Body Image, 45, 86-93.
↑40, ↑41 del Mar Bibiloni, M., Pich, J., Pons, A., & Tur, J. A. (2013). Body image and eating patterns among adolescents. BMC public health, 13(1), 1-10
↑42 Robertson, M., Duffy, F., Newman, E., Bravo, C. P., Ates, H. H., & Sharpe, H. (2021). Exploring changes in body image, eating and exercise during the COVID-19 lockdown: A UK survey. Appetite, 159, 105062
↑43 Allaz, A. F., Bernstein, M., Rouget, P., Archinard, M., & Morabia, A. (1998). Body weight preoccupation in middle‐age and ageing women: A general population survey. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23(3), 287-294.
↑44 Mangweth‐Matzek, B., Rupp, C. I., Hausmann, A., Assmayr, K., Mariacher, E., Kemmler, G., … & Biebl, W. (2006). Never too old for eating disorders or body dissatisfaction: A community study of elderly women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39(7), 583-586.
↑46 Jackson, K. L., Janssen, I., Appelhans, B. M., Kazlauskaite, R., Karavolos, K., Dugan, S. A., … Kravitz, H. M. (2014). Body image satisfaction and depression in midlife women: The study of women’s health across the Nation (SWAN). Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 17(3), 177–187
↑48 Etcoff et al (2006). Beyond Stereotypes: Rebuilding the foundation of beauty beliefs. Findings of the 2005 global study
↑49 Frederick, D. A., Peplau, L. A., & Lever, J. (2006). The swimsuit issue: Correlates of body image in a sample of 52,677 heterosexual adults. Body Image, 3(4), 413-419
↑50 Jackson, K. L., Janssen, I., Appelhans, B. M., Kazlauskaite, R., Karavolos, K., Dugan, S. A., … & Kravitz, H. M. (2014). Body image satisfaction and depression in midlife women: the Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation (SWAN). Archives of women’s mental health, 17(3), 177-187
↑51 Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: a meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological bulletin, 134(3), 460
↑52 Stice, E. (2002). Risk and maintenance factors for eating pathology: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 825-848
↑53 Herbozo, S., Tantleff-Dunn, S., Gokee-Larose, J., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Beauty and thinness messages in children’s media: A content analysis. Eating Disorders, 12(1), 21-34.
↑54 Northup, T., & Liebler, C. M. (2010). The good, the bad, and the beautiful: Beauty ideals on the Disney and Nickelodeon channels. Journal of Children and Media, 4(3), 265-282
↑55 Klein, H., & Shiffman, K. S. (2005). Thin is “in” and stout is “out”: What animated cartoons tell viewers about body weight. Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 10(2), 107-116.
↑56 Dittmar, H., Halliwell, E., & Ive, S. (2006). Does Barbie make girls want to be thin? The effect of experimental exposure to images of dolls on the body image of 5-to 8-year-old girls. Developmental psychology, 42(2), 283.
↑57 Field, A. E., Cheung, L., Wolf, A. M., Herzog, D. B., Gortmaker, S. L., & Colditz, G. A. (1999). Exposure to the mass media and weight concerns among girls. Pediatrics, 103(3), e36-e36.
↑58 Utter, J., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Wall, M., & Story, M. (2003). Reading magazine articles about dieting and associated weight control behaviors among adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 32(1), 78-82.
↑59 Becker, A. E., Burwell, R. A., Herzog, D. B., Hamburg, P., & Gilman, S. E. (2002). Eating behaviours and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 180(6), 509-514.
↑60 Fardouly, J., Diedrichs, P. C., Vartanian, L. R., & Halliwell, E. (2015). Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. Body image, 13, 38-45.
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